APUSH Unit 7 Study Guide: 1890-1945
This comprehensive guide navigates the transformative era of 1890-1945, encompassing industrial growth, progressive reforms, global conflicts, and economic upheaval for APUSH students․
Overview of Period 7
Period 7, spanning 1890 to 1945, represents a pivotal juncture in American history, marked by dramatic shifts in economic structure, societal norms, and global engagement․ The nation transitioned from a largely agrarian society to an industrial powerhouse, fueled by technological innovation and the rise of big business; This era witnessed significant social and political reforms through the Progressive Movement, addressing issues like corruption, inequality, and urbanization․
Simultaneously, the United States embarked on a path of imperial expansion, asserting its influence on the world stage through events like the Spanish-American War․ The 20th century brought the devastation of World War I, followed by the economic boom and cultural changes of the Roaring Twenties, abruptly halted by the Great Depression․ Franklin D․ Roosevelt’s New Deal attempted to alleviate suffering and reform the economic system․ Ultimately, the period culminated in the United States’ involvement in World War II, solidifying its position as a global superpower․
Key Concept 7․1: Growth of American Economic Power
This period saw an unprecedented surge in American economic strength, driven by rapid industrialization and technological advancements․ Innovations like electricity, steel production, and the assembly line revolutionized manufacturing, leading to mass production and increased efficiency․ The expansion of railroads facilitated national market integration, connecting distant regions and fostering economic growth․
However, this prosperity wasn’t without its downsides․ The rise of big business and monopolies, exemplified by figures like Rockefeller and Carnegie, concentrated wealth in the hands of a few, leading to concerns about unfair practices and economic inequality․ Labor movements emerged, advocating for workers’ rights and challenging the power of corporations․ Governmental policies, such as laissez-faire capitalism initially, gradually shifted towards regulation to address these issues, shaping the modern American economic landscape․
Industrialization and Technological Innovation
The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a dramatic acceleration of industrialization fueled by groundbreaking technological innovations․ Electricity replaced steam power, enabling factories to operate more efficiently and expand production capabilities․ The Bessemer process revolutionized steel production, making it cheaper and more readily available for railroads, skyscrapers, and infrastructure projects․
Furthermore, inventions like the telephone, telegraph, and later, the radio, transformed communication, connecting people across vast distances․ The assembly line, pioneered by Henry Ford, revolutionized manufacturing, drastically reducing production time and costs for automobiles and other goods․ These innovations not only boosted economic output but also profoundly altered American society, creating new industries, jobs, and consumer patterns, while simultaneously presenting new challenges for workers and communities․
Rise of Big Business and Monopolies
Following the Civil War, American businesses experienced unprecedented growth, leading to the emergence of powerful corporations and monopolies․ Entrepreneurs like John D․ Rockefeller (oil), Andrew Carnegie (steel), and J․P․ Morgan (finance) amassed immense wealth and control over key industries․ This consolidation of power was achieved through various tactics, including horizontal and vertical integration, price fixing, and the elimination of competition․
These “robber barons,” as they were often called, justified their practices by appealing to Social Darwinism, arguing that their success was a natural result of their superior abilities․ However, their monopolistic practices led to concerns about unfair competition, high prices, and the exploitation of workers․ This era sparked public debate and ultimately fueled the Progressive movement’s efforts to regulate big business and protect consumers․
Key Concept 7․2: The Rise of Progressivism
The Progressive Era (roughly 1890-1920) was a period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States․ Driven by concerns about industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and political corruption, Progressives sought to address these issues through government intervention and societal improvements․ They believed in the power of education, science, and expertise to solve social problems․
Progressivism wasn’t a unified movement, encompassing a diverse range of ideologies and goals․ Key areas of focus included political reform (direct democracy, initiative, referendum, recall), economic regulation (trust-busting, consumer protection), and social justice (women’s suffrage, labor rights, temperance); Muckrakers, investigative journalists, played a crucial role in exposing corruption and raising public awareness, fueling the demand for change․
Progressive Era Reforms: Political
Political reforms during the Progressive Era aimed to empower citizens and reduce the influence of corrupt political machines․ Key changes included the initiative, allowing citizens to propose laws directly; the referendum, enabling voters to approve or reject laws passed by legislatures; and the recall, permitting voters to remove elected officials from office․ These measures promoted direct democracy and increased citizen participation․
Furthermore, the 17th Amendment (1913) established the direct election of senators, previously chosen by state legislatures, reducing corruption and increasing accountability․ Efforts were also made to regulate campaign finance and strengthen voting rights․ These reforms sought to create a more transparent, responsive, and democratic government, shifting power away from party bosses and towards the electorate․
Progressive Era Reforms: Social
Social reforms of the Progressive Era addressed widespread issues stemming from industrialization and urbanization; Muckrakers, investigative journalists, exposed societal problems like poverty, unsafe working conditions, and political corruption, fueling public demand for change․ Reforms focused on improving living conditions, particularly in urban areas, with advancements in sanitation, housing regulations, and public health initiatives․
The temperance movement gained momentum, culminating in the 18th Amendment (1919), prohibiting the manufacture and sale of alcohol․ Advocates for women’s suffrage achieved a landmark victory with the 19th Amendment (1920), granting women the right to vote․ Child labor laws were enacted to protect young workers, and efforts were made to improve education and provide social welfare programs, aiming to create a more just and equitable society․
Key Concept 7․3: American Imperialism
American Imperialism, spanning the late 19th and early 20th centuries, marked a significant shift in U․S․ foreign policy․ Driven by economic interests, political ambitions, and a belief in cultural superiority, the U․S․ expanded its influence beyond its continental borders․ Factors fueling this expansion included the desire for new markets, access to raw materials, and strategic military bases․
Debates over imperialism were fierce, with anti-imperialists arguing against the acquisition of colonies, citing moral objections and concerns about undermining democratic principles․ Proponents emphasized the benefits of expanding American power and spreading its values․ This period witnessed the acquisition of territories like Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, often through military intervention and diplomatic pressure․
Motivations for Imperialism
Several intertwined factors propelled American imperialism․ Economic motivations were paramount, as businesses sought new markets for surplus goods and access to cheaper raw materials․ The closing of the frontier fostered a desire for overseas expansion to continue economic growth․ Political motivations included a growing sense of national pride and a desire to assert American power on the world stage, mirroring European imperial ambitions․
Ideological justifications, rooted in Social Darwinism and the “White Man’s Burden,” posited a belief in American cultural and racial superiority, suggesting a duty to “civilize” other nations․ Strategic considerations also played a role, with the U․S․ seeking to establish naval bases and control key trade routes․ These combined forces drove the U․S․ towards a more assertive and expansionist foreign policy․
The Spanish-American War and its Aftermath
The Spanish-American War of 1898 marked a turning point in American foreign policy, propelling the U․S․ onto the world stage as an imperial power․ Sparked by Cuban independence struggles and the mysterious sinking of the USS Maine, the war resulted in a swift American victory․ The U․S․ gained control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines․
The aftermath was complex and controversial․ While Cuba gained nominal independence, the Platt Amendment granted the U․S․ significant control over its affairs․ The annexation of the Philippines ignited a fierce debate over imperialism, with anti-imperialists arguing it contradicted American ideals․ The war demonstrated America’s growing military and economic strength, solidifying its position as a global power and setting the stage for future interventions․
Key Concept 7․4: America and the Great War
America’s involvement in World War I (1917-1918) dramatically reshaped the nation’s role in global affairs․ Initially maintaining a policy of neutrality, the U․S․ gradually shifted towards intervention due to unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany, including the sinking of the Lusitania, and the Zimmerman Telegram proposing an alliance with Mexico against the U․S․
The war effort mobilized the American economy and society․ Millions of men were drafted, and industries converted to wartime production․ The government implemented propaganda campaigns to garner public support and suppress dissent․ Post-war, President Wilson advocated for the League of Nations, but the U․S․ Senate ultimately rejected it, signaling a return to isolationism despite the war’s profound impact on American identity and power․
Causes of American Entry into World War I
Several factors propelled the United States into World War I, abandoning its long-held neutrality․ Germany’s policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, targeting both military and civilian ships, proved a major catalyst, particularly the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, which claimed American lives and inflamed public opinion․
Economic ties with the Allied powers also played a role, as American banks had extended substantial loans to Britain and France․ A victory for the Central Powers threatened these investments․ The interception of the Zimmerman Telegram, a German proposal to Mexico for an alliance against the U․S․, further enraged Americans․ Finally, President Wilson’s desire to “make the world safe for democracy” provided a moral justification for intervention, leading to a declaration of war in April 1917․
The Home Front During World War I
World War I dramatically reshaped American society on the home front․ The U․S․ government mobilized resources through agencies like the War Industries Board, directing economic production towards the war effort․ Propaganda campaigns, spearheaded by the Committee on Public Information, aimed to generate public support and demonize the enemy․
Civil liberties were curtailed with the passage of the Espionage and Sedition Acts, suppressing dissent and limiting freedom of speech․ Women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers, filling jobs vacated by men serving overseas․ The Great Migration saw African Americans move north in search of economic opportunities and to escape racial discrimination․ Despite these changes, racial tensions persisted, culminating in violent outbreaks․ Ultimately, the war fostered a climate of conformity and national unity, albeit at the cost of individual freedoms․
Key Concept 7․5: The Roaring Twenties
The 1920s, a period of dramatic social and cultural change, witnessed unprecedented economic prosperity fueled by mass production and consumerism․ The automobile became a symbol of the era, transforming American life and driving related industries․ A burgeoning consumer culture emerged, characterized by installment buying and advertising․ Simultaneously, significant cultural clashes arose between traditional values and modern ideas․
The Harlem Renaissance flourished, celebrating African American art, literature, and music․ Prohibition, enacted through the 18th Amendment, led to the rise of organized crime and speakeasies․ The “Lost Generation” of writers expressed disillusionment with post-war society; Nativism and anti-immigrant sentiment intensified, culminating in restrictive immigration laws․ These contrasting forces defined the decade, creating a complex and dynamic era in American history․
Economic Prosperity and Consumer Culture
The 1920s experienced substantial economic growth, driven by innovations in manufacturing like the assembly line, boosting production and lowering costs․ This led to a surge in consumer goods availability – automobiles, radios, appliances – transforming American households․ Advertising played a crucial role, creating demand and shaping consumer desires․
Installment buying became widespread, allowing people to purchase expensive items on credit, further fueling consumption․ The stock market boomed, attracting both experienced and novice investors, creating a sense of widespread prosperity․ However, this prosperity was unevenly distributed, with significant income inequality persisting․ A culture of leisure emerged, with increased spending on entertainment and recreation, defining the “Roaring Twenties” lifestyle and setting the stage for future economic shifts․
Social and Cultural Changes of the 1920s
The 1920s witnessed dramatic shifts in social norms and cultural expression․ The “New Woman” emerged, challenging traditional gender roles through behaviors like flapper fashion, shorter hairstyles, and increased participation in the workforce․ Prohibition, enacted by the 18th Amendment, led to the rise of speakeasies and organized crime, demonstrating societal resistance to restrictive laws․
The Harlem Renaissance flourished, celebrating African American culture through literature, music (jazz and blues), and art, fostering a new sense of racial pride and identity․ Clashes between traditional and modern values intensified, exemplified by the Scopes Trial, which debated the teaching of evolution in schools․ Mass media, including radio and movies, became increasingly popular, creating a shared national culture and influencing public opinion, fundamentally altering American society․
Key Concept 7․6: The Great Depression and the New Deal
The Great Depression, beginning with the stock market crash of 1929, devastated the American economy․ Overproduction, unequal wealth distribution, and a fragile banking system contributed to widespread unemployment and poverty․ President Herbert Hoover’s initial response, emphasizing voluntary cooperation, proved inadequate to address the crisis’s scale․
Franklin D․ Roosevelt’s New Deal implemented a series of programs aimed at relief, recovery, and reform․ Relief measures like the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and the Works Progress Administration (WPA) provided jobs․ Recovery programs, such as the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), sought to stabilize prices․ Reform legislation, including the Social Security Act and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), aimed to prevent future economic collapses, fundamentally reshaping the role of government․
Causes of the Great Depression
The Great Depression wasn’t triggered by a single event, but a complex interplay of factors․ A primary cause was overproduction in both agriculture and industry, leading to surpluses and falling prices throughout the 1920s․ Unequal distribution of wealth meant most Americans lacked the purchasing power to consume the goods being produced, exacerbating the problem․
A weak banking system, characterized by risky loans and insufficient regulation, proved vulnerable․ The stock market speculation and subsequent crash of 1929 wiped out billions in wealth, triggering a loss of confidence․ High tariffs, like the Smoot-Hawley Tariff, hindered international trade, worsening the global economic downturn․ These combined forces created a devastating economic spiral, plunging the nation into its deepest crisis․
Franklin D․ Roosevelt’s New Deal Programs
Franklin D․ Roosevelt’s New Deal aimed to alleviate the suffering of the Great Depression through “relief, recovery, and reform․” Relief programs, like the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), provided direct aid and jobs to the unemployed․ Recovery programs, such as the Public Works Administration (PWA) and the National Recovery Administration (NRA), sought to stimulate economic growth through infrastructure projects and industry regulation․
Reform measures, including the Social Security Act and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), addressed systemic weaknesses in the economy․ The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) focused on regional development․ While debated for its effectiveness, the New Deal fundamentally altered the relationship between the government and the American people, expanding the role of the federal government in economic and social life․
Key Concept 7․7: World War II
World War II dramatically reshaped the United States and the global order․ Initial American policy focused on neutrality, reflected in the Neutrality Acts, but gradually shifted towards aiding Allied nations through programs like Lend-Lease․ The attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 propelled the US into the conflict, uniting the nation against the Axis powers․
The war effort mobilized the American economy, ending the Great Depression and creating new opportunities for women and minorities in the workforce․ On the home front, rationing, war bonds, and propaganda campaigns supported the war․ The war culminated in the use of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan’s surrender and the dawn of the nuclear age, forever altering international relations․
Causes of American Entry into World War II
Initially, the United States adhered to a policy of isolationism, stemming from disillusionment after World War I and focusing on domestic issues like the Great Depression․ However, the rise of aggressive totalitarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan challenged this stance․ The Neutrality Acts of the 1930s aimed to prevent entanglement in foreign conflicts, but were gradually weakened as the global situation deteriorated․
Growing concerns over Axis expansion, particularly in Europe and Asia, led to increased American aid to Allied nations through programs like “Cash and Carry” and Lend-Lease․ The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, proved the decisive catalyst, galvanizing public opinion and prompting a formal declaration of war against Japan, and subsequently, Germany and Italy․
The Home Front During World War II
World War II profoundly reshaped American society, mobilizing the nation’s resources and manpower․ The war effort spurred unprecedented industrial production, ending the Great Depression and creating millions of jobs․ Women entered the workforce in vast numbers, filling roles previously held by men, exemplified by “Rosie the Riveter,” while minorities also found increased employment opportunities, though often facing discrimination․
The government implemented rationing of essential goods like food, gasoline, and rubber, and encouraged citizens to conserve resources․ Propaganda played a crucial role in maintaining public morale and support for the war․ Japanese Americans faced mass incarceration in internment camps, a stark violation of civil liberties fueled by wartime hysteria․ The war also led to significant advancements in science and technology․